Forward Start Options [Loxx]A forward start option with time to maturity T starts at-the-money or proportionally in- or out-of-the-money after a known elapsed time t in the future. The strike is set equal to a positive constant a times the asset price S after the known time t. If a is less than unity, the call (put) will start 1 - a percent in-the-money (out-of-the- money); if a is unity, the option will start at-the-money; and if a is larger than unity, the call (put) will start a - 1 percentage out-of-the- money (in-the-money).A forward start option can be priced using the Rubinstein (1990) formula: (via "The Complete Guide to Option Pricing Formulas")
c = S*e^(b-r)t * (e^(b-r)(T-t) * N(d1)) - alpha * e^-r(T-t) * N(d2))
p = S*e^(b-r)t * (alpha*e^r(T-t) * N(-d2)) - e^-(b-r)(T-t) * N(-d1))
where
d1 = (log(1/alpha) + (b + v^2/2)(T-1))/v*(T-t)^0.5
d2 = d1 - v*(T-t)^0.5
Application
Employee options are often of the forward starting type. Ratchet options (aka cliquet options) consist of a series of forward starting options.
b=r options on non-dividend paying stock
b=r-q options on stock or index paying a dividend yield of q
b=0 options on futures
b=r-rf currency options (where rf is the rate in the second currency)
Inputs
S = Stock price.
a = Alpha
T1 = Time to forward start
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
c = Cost of Carry
v = volatility of the underlying asset price
Numerical Greeks or Greeks by Finite Difference
Analytical Greeks are the standard approach to estimating Delta, Gamma etc... That is what we typically use when we can derive from closed form solutions. Normally, these are well-defined and available in text books. Previously, we relied on closed form solutions for the call or put formulae differentiated with respect to the Black Scholes parameters. When Greeks formulae are difficult to develop or tease out, we can alternatively employ numerical Greeks - sometimes referred to finite difference approximations. A key advantage of numerical Greeks relates to their estimation independent of deriving mathematical Greeks. This could be important when we examine American options where there may not technically exist an exact closed form solution that is straightforward to work with. (via VinegarHill FinanceLabs)
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Options
Executive Stock Options [Loxx]The Jennergren and Naslund (1993) formula takes into account that an employee or executive often loses her options if she has to leave the company before the option's expiration: (via "The Complete Guide to Option Pricing Formulas")
c = e^(-lambda*T) * (Se^((b-r)T) * N(d1) - Xe^-rT * N(d2))
p = e^(-lambda*T) * (Xe^(-rT) * N(-d2) - Se^(b-r)T * N(-d1))
where
d1 = (log(S/X) + (b + v^2/2)T) / vT^0.5
d2 = d1 - vT^0.5
lambda is the jump rate per year. The value of the executive option equals the ordinary Black-Scholes option price multiplied by the probability e —AT that the executive will stay with the firm until the option expires.
b=r options on non-dividend paying stock
b=r-q options on stock or index paying a dividend yield of q
b=0 options on futures
b=r-rf currency options (where rf is the rate in the second currency)
Inputs
S = Stock price.
K = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
c = Cost of Carry
V = Variance of the underlying asset price
lambda = Jump rate per year
cnd1(x) = Cumulative Normal Distribution
nd(x) = Standard Normal Density Function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
Numerical Greeks or Greeks by Finite Difference
Analytical Greeks are the standard approach to estimating Delta, Gamma etc... That is what we typically use when we can derive from closed form solutions. Normally, these are well-defined and available in text books. Previously, we relied on closed form solutions for the call or put formulae differentiated with respect to the Black Scholes parameters. When Greeks formulae are difficult to develop or tease out, we can alternatively employ numerical Greeks - sometimes referred to finite difference approximations. A key advantage of numerical Greeks relates to their estimation independent of deriving mathematical Greeks. This could be important when we examine American options where there may not technically exist an exact closed form solution that is straightforward to work with. (via VinegarHill FinanceLabs)
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Variable Purchase Options [Loxx]Handley (2001) describes how to value variable purchase options (VPO). A VPO is basically a call option, but where the number of underlying shares is stochastic rather than fixed, or more precisely, a deterministic function of the asset price. The strike price of a VPO is typically a fixed discount to the underlying share price at maturity. The payoff at maturity is equal to max , where N is the number of shares. VPOs may be an interesting tool for firms that need to raise capital relatively far into the future at a given time. The number of underlying shares N is decided on at maturity and is equal to
N = X / St(1 -D)
where X is the strike price, ST is the asset price at maturity, and D is the fixed discount expressed as a proportion 0 > D < 1. The number of shares is in this way a deterministic function of the asset price. Further, the number of shares is often subjected to a minimum and maximum. In this case, we will limit the minimum number of shares to Nmin = X / U(1 -D) if, the asset price at maturity is above a predefined level U at maturity. Similarly, we will reach the maximum number of shares A T = x if the stock price at maturity is equal Nmax = X / L(1 -D) or lower than a predefined level L. Based on Handley (2001), we get the following closed-form solution: (via "The Complete Guide to Option Pricing Formulas")
c = XD / 1-D e^-rT + Nmin(Se^(b-r)T * N(d1) - Ue^-rT * N(d2))
- Nmax(Le^-rT * N(-d4) - Se^(b-r)T * N(-d3))
+ Nmax(L(1-D)e^-rT * N(-d6) - Se^(b-r)T * N(-d5))
where
d1 = (log(S/U) + (b+v^2/2)T) / vT^0.5 ... d2 = d1 - vT^0.5
d3 = (log(S/L) + (b+v^2/2)T) / vT^0.5 ... d4 = d3 - vT^0.5
d5 = (log(S/L(1-D)) + (b+v^2/2)T) / vT^0.5 ... d6 = d5 - vT^0.5
Inputs
Asset price (S)
Strike price (K)
Discount %
Lower bound
Upper bound
Time to maturity
Risk-free rate (r) %
Cost of carry (b) %
Volatility (v) %
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Perpetual American Options [Loxx]Perpetual American Options is Perpetual American Options pricing model. This indicator also includes numerical greeks.
American Perpetual Options
While there in general is no closed-form solution for American options (except for non-dividend-paying stock call options) it is possible to find a closed-form solution for options with an infinite time to expiration. The reason is that the time to expiration will always be the same: infinite. The time to maturity, therefore, does not depend on at what point in time we look at the valuation problem, which makes the valuation problem independent of time McKean (1965) and Merton (1973) gives closed-form solutions for American perpetual options. For a call option we have
c = (X / (y1 - 1)) * ((y1 - 1)/y1 * S/X)^y1
where
y1 = 1/2 - b/v^2 + ((b/v^2 - 1/2)^2 + 2*r/v^2)^0.5
If b >= r, then there is never optimal to exercise a call option. In the case of an American perpetual put, we have
p = X/(1-y2) * (((y2 - 1) / y2) * S/X)^y2
where
y2 = 1/2 - b/v^2 - ((b/v^2 - 1/2)^2 + 2*r/v^2)^0.5
In practice, one can naturally discuss if there is such a thing as infinite time to maturity. For instance, credit risk could play an important role: Even when you are buying an option from an AAA bank, there is no guarantee the bank will be around forever.
b=r options on non-dividend paying stock
b=r-q options on stock or index paying a dividend yield of q
b=0 options on futures
b=r-rf currency options (where rf is the rate in the second currency)
Inputs
S = Stock price.
K = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
c = Cost of Carry
V = Variance of the underlying asset price
cnd1(x) = Cumulative Normal Distribution
cbnd3(x) = Cumulative Bivariate Normal Distribution
nd(x) = Standard Normal Density Function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
Numerical Greeks or Greeks by Finite Difference
Analytical Greeks are the standard approach to estimating Delta, Gamma etc... That is what we typically use when we can derive from closed form solutions. Normally, these are well-defined and available in text books. Previously, we relied on closed form solutions for the call or put formulae differentiated with respect to the Black Scholes parameters. When Greeks formulae are difficult to develop or tease out, we can alternatively employ numerical Greeks - sometimes referred to finite difference approximations. A key advantage of numerical Greeks relates to their estimation independent of deriving mathematical Greeks. This could be important when we examine American options where there may not technically exist an exact closed form solution that is straightforward to work with. (via VinegarHill FinanceLabs)
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
American Approximation Bjerksund & Stensland 2002 [Loxx]American Approximation Bjerksund & Stensland 2002 is an American Options pricing model. This indicator also includes numerical greeks. You can compare the output of the American Approximation to the Black-Scholes-Merton value on the output of the options panel.
The Bjerksund & Stensland (2002) Approximation
The Bjerksund and Stensland (2002) approximation divides the time to maturity into two parts, each with a separate flat exercise boundary. It is thus a straightforward generalization of the Bjerksund-Stensland 1993 algorithm. The method is fast and efficient and should be more accurate than the Barone-Adesi and Whaley (1987) and the Bjerksund and Stensland (1993b) approximations. The algorithm requires an accurate cumulative bivariate normal approximation. Several approximations that are described in the literature are not sufficiently accurate, but the Genze algorithm works.
C = alpha2*S^B - alpha2*phi(S, t1, B, I2, I2)
+ phi(S, t1, I2, I2) - phi(S, t1, I, I1, I2)
- X*phi(S, t1, 0, I2, I2) + X*phi(S, t1, 0, I1, I2)
+ alpha1*phi(X, t1, B, I1, I2) - alpha1*psi*St, T, B, I1, I2, I1, t1)
+ psi(S, T, 1, I1, I2, I1, t1) - psi(S, T, 1, X, I2, I1, t1)
- X*psi(S, T, 0, I1, I2, I1, t1) + psi(S, T, 0 ,X, I2, I1, t1)
where
alpha1 = (I1 - X)*I1^-B
alpha2 = (I2 - X)*I2^-B
B = (1/2 - b/v^2) + ((b/v^2 - 1/2)^2 + 2*(r/v^2))^0.5
The function psi(S, T, y, H, I) is given by
psi(S, T, gamma, H, I) = e^lambda * S^gamma * (N(-d) - (I/S)^k * N(-d2))
d = (log(S/H) + (b + (gamma - 1/2) * v^2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
d2 = (log(I^2/(S*H)) + (b + (gamma - 1/2) * v^2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
lambda = -r + gamma * b + 1/2 * gamma * (gamma - 1) * v^2
k = 2*b/v^2 + (2 * gamma - 1)
and the trigger price I is defined as
I1 = B0 + (B(+infi) - B0) * (1 - e^h1)
I2 = B0 + (B(+infi) - B0) * (1 - e^h2)
h1 = -(b*t1 + 2*v*t1^0.5) * (X^2 / ((B(+infi) - B0))*B0)
h2 = -(b*T + 2*v*T^0.5) * (X^2 / ((B(+infi) - B0))*B0)
t1 = 1/2 * (5^0.5 - 1) * T
B(+infi) = (B / (B - 1)) * X
B0 = max(X, (r / (r - b)) * X)
Moreover, the function psi(S, T, gamma, H, I2, I1, t1) is given by
psi(S, T, gamma, H, I2, I1, t1, r, b, v) = e^(lambda * T) * S^gamma * (M(-e1, -f1, rho) - (I2/S)^k * M(-e2, -f2, rho)
- (I1/S)^k * M(-e3, -f3, -rho) + (I1/I2)^k * M(-e4, -f4, -rho))
where (see screenshot for e and f values)
b=r options on non-dividend paying stock
b=r-q options on stock or index paying a dividend yield of q
b=0 options on futures
b=r-rf currency options (where rf is the rate in the second currency)
Inputs
S = Stock price.
K = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
c = Cost of Carry
V = Variance of the underlying asset price
cnd1(x) = Cumulative Normal Distribution
cbnd3(x) = Cumulative Bivariate Normal Distribution
nd(x) = Standard Normal Density Function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
Numerical Greeks or Greeks by Finite Difference
Analytical Greeks are the standard approach to estimating Delta, Gamma etc... That is what we typically use when we can derive from closed form solutions. Normally, these are well-defined and available in text books. Previously, we relied on closed form solutions for the call or put formulae differentiated with respect to the Black Scholes parameters. When Greeks formulae are difficult to develop or tease out, we can alternatively employ numerical Greeks - sometimes referred to finite difference approximations. A key advantage of numerical Greeks relates to their estimation independent of deriving mathematical Greeks. This could be important when we examine American options where there may not technically exist an exact closed form solution that is straightforward to work with. (via VinegarHill FinanceLabs)
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
American Approximation Bjerksund & Stensland 1993 [Loxx]American Approximation Bjerksund & Stensland 1993 is an American Options pricing model. This indicator also includes numerical greeks. You can compare the output of the American Approximation to the Black-Scholes-Merton value on the output of the options panel.
The Bjerksund and Stensland (1993) approximation can be used to price American options on stocks, futures, and currencies. The method is analytical and extremely computer-efficient. Bjerksund and Stensland's approximation is based on an exercise strategy corresponding to a flat boundary / (trigger price). Numerical investigation indicates that the Bjerksund and Stensland model is somewhat more accurate for long-term options than the Barone-Adesi and Whaley model. (The Complete Guide to Option Pricing Formulas)
C = alpha * X^beta - alpha Ø(S, T, beta, I, I) + Ø(S, T, I, I, I) - Ø(S, T, I, X, I) - XØ(S, T, 0, I, I) + XØ(S, T, 0, X, I)
where
alpha = (1 - X) * I^-beta
beta = (1/2 - b/v^2) + ((b/v^2 - 1/2)^2 + 2*(r/v^2))^0.5
The function Ø(S, T, y, H, I) is given by
Ø(S, T, gamma, H, I) = e^lambda * S^gamma * (N(d) - (I/S)^k * N(d - (2 * log(I/S)) / v*T^0.5))
lambda = (-r + gamma * b + 1/2 * gamma(gamma - 1) * v^2) * T
d = (log(S/H) + (b + (gamma - 1/2) * v^2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
k = 2*b/v^2 + (2 * gamma - 1)
and the trigger price I is defined as
I = B0 + (B(+infi) - B0) * (1 - e^h(T))
h(T) = -(b*T + 2*v*T^0.5) * (B0 / (B(+infi) - B0))
B(+infi) = (B / (B - 1)) * X
B0 = max(X, (r / (r - b)) * X)
If s > I, it is optimal to exercise the option immediately, and the value must be equal to the intrinsic value of S - X. On the other hand, if b > r, it will never be optimal to exercise the American call option before expiration, and the value can be found using the generalized BSM formula. The value of the American put is given by the Bjerksund and Stensland put-call transformation
P(S, X, T, r, b, v) = C(X, S, T, r -b, -b, v)
where C(*) is the value of the American call with risk-free rate r - b and drift -b. With the use of this transformation, it is not necessary to develop a separate formula for an American put option.
b=r options on non-dividend paying stock
b=r-q options on stock or index paying a dividend yield of q
b=0 options on futures
b=r-rf currency options (where rf is the rate in the second currency)
Inputs
S = Stock price.
K = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
c = Cost of Carry
V = Variance of the underlying asset price
cnd1(x) = Cumulative Normal Distribution
cbnd3(x) = Cumulative Bivariate Normal Distribution
nd(x) = Standard Normal Density Function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
Numerical Greeks or Greeks by Finite Difference
Analytical Greeks are the standard approach to estimating Delta, Gamma etc... That is what we typically use when we can derive from closed form solutions. Normally, these are well-defined and available in text books. Previously, we relied on closed form solutions for the call or put formulae differentiated with respect to the Black Scholes parameters. When Greeks formulae are difficult to develop or tease out, we can alternatively employ numerical Greeks - sometimes referred to finite difference approximations. A key advantage of numerical Greeks relates to their estimation independent of deriving mathematical Greeks. This could be important when we examine American options where there may not technically exist an exact closed form solution that is straightforward to work with. (via VinegarHill FinanceLabs)
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
American Approximation: Barone-Adesi and Whaley [Loxx]American Approximation: Barone-Adesi and Whaley is an American Options pricing model. This indicator also includes numerical greeks. You can compare the output of the American Approximation to the Black-Scholes-Merton value on the output of the options panel.
An American option can be exercised at any time up to its expiration date. This added freedom complicates the valuation of American options relative to their European counterparts. With a few exceptions, it is not possible to find an exact formula for the value of American options. Several researchers have, however, come up with excellent closed-form approximations. These approximations have become especially popular because they execute quickly on computers compared to numerical techniques. At the end of the chapter, we look at closed-form solutions for perpetual American options.
The Barone-Adesi and Whaley Approximation
The quadratic approximation method by Barone-Adesi and Whaley (1987) can be used to price American call and put options on an underlying asset with cost-of-carry rate b. When b > r, the American call value is equal to the European call value and can then be found by using the generalized Black-Scholes-Merton (BSM) formula. The model is fast and accurate for most practical input values.
American Call
C(S, C, T) = Cbsm(S, X, T) + A2 / (S/S*)^q2 ... when S < S*
C(S, C, T) = S - X ... when S >= S*
where Cbsm(S, X, T) is the general Black-Scholes-Merton call formula, and
A2 = S* / q2 * (1 - e^((b - r) * T)) * N(d1(S*)))
d1(S) = (log(S/X) + (b + v^2/2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
q2 = (-(N-1) + ((N-1)^2 + 4M/K))^0.5) / 2
M = 2r/v^2
N = 2b/v^2
K = 1 - e^(-r*T)
American Put
P(S, C, T) = Pbsm(S, X, T) + A1 / (S/S**)^q1 ... when S < S**
P(S, C, T) = X - S .... when S >= S**
where Pbsm(S, X, T) is the generalized BSM put option formula, and
A1 = -S** / q1 * (1 - e^((b - r) * T)) * N(-d1(S**)))
q1 = (-(N-1) - ((N-1)^2 + 4M/K))^0.5) / 2
where S* is the critical commodity price for the call option that satisfies
S* - X = c(S*, X, T) + (1 - e^((b - r) * T) * N(d1(S*))) * S* * 1/q2
These equations can be solved by using a Newton-Raphson algorithm. The iterative procedure should continue until the relative absolute error falls within an acceptable tolerance level. See code for details on the Newton-Raphson algorithm.
Inputs
S = Stock price.
K = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
c = Cost of Carry
V = Variance of the underlying asset price
cnd1(x) = Cumulative Normal Distribution
cbnd3(x) = Cumulative Bivariate Normal Distribution
nd(x) = Standard Normal Density Function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp) = Rate compounder
Numerical Greeks or Greeks by Finite Difference
Analytical Greeks are the standard approach to estimating Delta, Gamma etc... That is what we typically use when we can derive from closed form solutions. Normally, these are well-defined and available in text books. Previously, we relied on closed form solutions for the call or put formulae differentiated with respect to the Black Scholes parameters. When Greeks formulae are difficult to develop or tease out, we can alternatively employ numerical Greeks - sometimes referred to finite difference approximations. A key advantage of numerical Greeks relates to their estimation independent of deriving mathematical Greeks. This could be important when we examine American options where there may not technically exist an exact closed form solution that is straightforward to work with. (via VinegarHill FinanceLabs)
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Samuelson 1965 Option Pricing Formula [Loxx]Samuelson 1965 Option Pricing Formula is an options pricing formula that pre-dates Black-Scholes-Merton. This version includes Analytical Greeks.
Samuelson (1965; see also Smith, 1976) assumed the asset price follows a geometric Brownian motion with positive drift, p. In this way he allowed for positive interest rates and a risk premium.
c = SN(d1) * e^((rho - omega) * T) - Xe^(-omega * T)N(d2)
d1 = (log(S / X) + (rho + v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
d2 = d1 - (v * T^0.5)
where rho is the average rate of growth of the share price and omega is the average rate of growth in the value of the call. This is different from the Boness model in that the Samuelson model can take into account that the expected return from the option is larger than that of the underlying asset omega > rho.
Analytical Greeks
Delta Greeks: Delta, DDeltaDvol, Elasticity
Gamma Greeks: Gamma, GammaP, DGammaDvol, Speed
Vega Greeks: Vega , DVegaDvol/Vomma, VegaP
Theta Greeks: Theta
Rate/Carry Greeks: Option growth rate sensitivity, Share growth rate sensitivity
Probability Greeks: StrikeDelta, Risk Neutral Density
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
omega = Average growth rate option
rho = Average growth rate share
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Boness 1964 Option Pricing Formula [Loxx]Boness 1964 Option Pricing Formula is an options pricing model that pre-dates Black-Scholes-Merton. This model includes Analytical Greeks.
Boness (1964) assumed a lognormal asset price. Boness derives the following value for a call option:
c = SN(d1) - Xe^(rho * T)N(d2)
d1 = (log(S / X) + (rho + v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
d2 = d1 - (v * T^0.5)
where rho is the expected rate of return to the asset.
Analytical Greeks
Delta Greeks: Delta, DDeltaDvol, Elasticity
Gamma Greeks: Gamma, GammaP, DGammaDvol, Speed
Vega Greeks: Vega , DVegaDvol/Vomma, VegaP
Theta Greeks: Theta
Probability Greeks: StrikeDelta, Risk Neutral Density, Rho Expected Rate of Return
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Expected Rate of Return
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Generalized Black-Scholes-Merton on Variance Form [Loxx]Generalized Black-Scholes-Merton on Variance Form is an adaptation of the Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing Model including Numerical Greeks. The following information is an excerpt from Espen Gaarder Haug's book "Option Pricing Formulas". This version is to price Options using variance instead of volatility.
Black- Scholes- Merton on Variance Form
In some circumstances, it is useful to rewrite the BSM formula using variance as input instead of volatility, V = v^2:
c = S * e^((b - r) * T) * N(d1) - X * e^(-r * T) * N(d2)
p = X * e^(-r * T) * N(-d2) - S * e^((b - r) * T) * N(-d1)
where
d1 = (log(S / X) + (b + V^2 / 2) * T) / (V * T)^0.5
d2 = d1 - (V * T)^0.5
BSM on variance form clearly gives the same price as when written on volatility form. The variance form is used indirectly in terms of its partial derivatives in some stochastic variance models, as well as for hedging of variance swaps. The BSM on variance form moreover admits an interesting symmetry between put and call options as discussed by Adamchuk and Haug (2005) at www.wilmott.com .
c(S, X, T, r, b, V) = -c(-S, -X, -T, -r, -b, -V)
and
p(S, X, T, r, b, V) = -p(-S, -X, -T, -r, -b, -V)
It is possible to find several similar symmetries if we introduce imaginary numbers.
b = r ... gives the Black and Scholes (1973) stock option model.
b = r — q ... gives the Merton (1973) stock option model with continuous dividend yield q.
b = 0 ... gives the Black (1976) futures option model.
b = 0 and r = 0 ... gives the Asay (1982) margined futures option model.
b = r — rf ... gives the Garman and Kohlhagen (1983) currency option model.
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
cc = Cost of Carry
V = Variance of the underlying asset price
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
Numerical Greeks or Greeks by Finite Difference
Analytical Greeks are the standard approach to estimating Delta, Gamma etc... That is what we typically use when we can derive from closed form solutions. Normally, these are well-defined and available in text books. Previously, we relied on closed form solutions for the call or put formulae differentiated with respect to the Black Scholes parameters. When Greeks formulae are difficult to develop or tease out, we can alternatively employ numerical Greeks - sometimes referred to finite difference approximations. A key advantage of numerical Greeks relates to their estimation independent of deriving mathematical Greeks. This could be important when we examine American options where there may not technically exist an exact closed form solution that is straightforward to work with. (via VinegarHill FinanceLabs)
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Asay (1982) Margined Futures Option Pricing Model [Loxx]Asay (1982) Margined Futures Option Pricing Model is an adaptation of the Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing Model including Analytical Greeks and implied volatility calculations. The following information is an excerpt from Espen Gaarder Haug's book "Option Pricing Formulas". This version is to price Options on Futures where premium is fully margined. This means the Risk-free Rate, dividend, and cost to carry are all zero. The options sensitivities (Greeks) are the partial derivatives of the Black-Scholes-Merton ( BSM ) formula. Analytical Greeks for our purposes here are broken down into various categories:
Delta Greeks: Delta, DDeltaDvol, Elasticity
Gamma Greeks: Gamma, GammaP, DGammaDvol, Speed
Vega Greeks: Vega , DVegaDvol/Vomma, VegaP
Theta Greeks: Theta
Probability Greeks: StrikeDelta, Risk Neutral Density
(See the code for more details)
Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing
The Black-Scholes-Merton model can be "generalized" by incorporating a cost-of-carry rate b. This model can be used to price European options on stocks, stocks paying a continuous dividend yield, options on futures , and currency options:
c = S * e^((b - r) * T) * N(d1) - X * e^(-r * T) * N(d2)
p = X * e^(-r * T) * N(-d2) - S * e^((b - r) * T) * N(-d1)
where
d1 = (log(S / X) + (b + v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
d2 = d1 - v * T^0.5
b = r ... gives the Black and Scholes (1973) stock option model.
b = r — q ... gives the Merton (1973) stock option model with continuous dividend yield q.
b = 0 ... gives the Black (1976) futures option model.
b = 0 and r = 0 ... gives the Asay (1982) margined futures option model. <== this is the one used for this indicator!
b = r — rf ... gives the Garman and Kohlhagen (1983) currency option model.
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
d = dividend yield
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
gImpliedVolatilityNR(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm , float epsilon) = Implied volatility via Newton Raphson
gBlackScholesImpVolBisection(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm ) = implied volatility via bisection
Implied Volatility: The Bisection Method
The Newton-Raphson method requires knowledge of the partial derivative of the option pricing formula with respect to volatility ( vega ) when searching for the implied volatility . For some options (exotic and American options in particular), vega is not known analytically. The bisection method is an even simpler method to estimate implied volatility when vega is unknown. The bisection method requires two initial volatility estimates (seed values):
1. A "low" estimate of the implied volatility , al, corresponding to an option value, CL
2. A "high" volatility estimate, aH, corresponding to an option value, CH
The option market price, Cm , lies between CL and cH . The bisection estimate is given as the linear interpolation between the two estimates:
v(i + 1) = v(L) + (c(m) - c(L)) * (v(H) - v(L)) / (c(H) - c(L))
Replace v(L) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) < c(m), or else replace v(H) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) > c(m) until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E, at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility and E is the desired degree of accuracy.
Implied Volatility: Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson method is an efficient way to find the implied volatility of an option contract. It is nothing more than a simple iteration technique for solving one-dimensional nonlinear equations (any introductory textbook in calculus will offer an intuitive explanation). The method seldom uses more than two to three iterations before it converges to the implied volatility . Let
v(i + 1) = v(i) + (c(v(i)) - c(m)) / (dc / dv (i))
until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility , E is the desired degree of accuracy, c(m) is the market price of the option, and dc/ dv (i) is the vega of the option evaluaated at v(i) (the sensitivity of the option value for a small change in volatility ).
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Black-76 Options on Futures [Loxx]Black-76 Options on Futures is an adaptation of the Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing Model including Analytical Greeks and implied volatility calculations. The following information is an excerpt from Espen Gaarder Haug's book "Option Pricing Formulas". This version is to price Options on Futures. The options sensitivities (Greeks) are the partial derivatives of the Black-Scholes-Merton ( BSM ) formula. Analytical Greeks for our purposes here are broken down into various categories:
Delta Greeks: Delta, DDeltaDvol, Elasticity
Gamma Greeks: Gamma, GammaP, DGammaDvol, Speed
Vega Greeks: Vega , DVegaDvol/Vomma, VegaP
Theta Greeks: Theta
Rate/Carry Greeks: Rho futures option
Probability Greeks: StrikeDelta, Risk Neutral Density
(See the code for more details)
Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing
The Black-Scholes-Merton model can be "generalized" by incorporating a cost-of-carry rate b. This model can be used to price European options on stocks, stocks paying a continuous dividend yield, options on futures , and currency options:
c = S * e^((b - r) * T) * N(d1) - X * e^(-r * T) * N(d2)
p = X * e^(-r * T) * N(-d2) - S * e^((b - r) * T) * N(-d1)
where
d1 = (log(S / X) + (b + v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
d2 = d1 - v * T^0.5
b = r ... gives the Black and Scholes (1973) stock option model.
b = r — q ... gives the Merton (1973) stock option model with continuous dividend yield q.
b = 0 ... gives the Black (1976) futures option model. <== this is the one used for this indicator!
b = 0 and r = 0 ... gives the Asay (1982) margined futures option model.
b = r — rf ... gives the Garman and Kohlhagen (1983) currency option model.
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
d = dividend yield
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
gImpliedVolatilityNR(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm , float epsilon) = Implied volatility via Newton Raphson
gBlackScholesImpVolBisection(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm ) = implied volatility via bisection
Implied Volatility: The Bisection Method
The Newton-Raphson method requires knowledge of the partial derivative of the option pricing formula with respect to volatility ( vega ) when searching for the implied volatility . For some options (exotic and American options in particular), vega is not known analytically. The bisection method is an even simpler method to estimate implied volatility when vega is unknown. The bisection method requires two initial volatility estimates (seed values):
1. A "low" estimate of the implied volatility , al, corresponding to an option value, CL
2. A "high" volatility estimate, aH, corresponding to an option value, CH
The option market price, Cm , lies between CL and cH . The bisection estimate is given as the linear interpolation between the two estimates:
v(i + 1) = v(L) + (c(m) - c(L)) * (v(H) - v(L)) / (c(H) - c(L))
Replace v(L) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) < c(m), or else replace v(H) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) > c(m) until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E, at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility and E is the desired degree of accuracy.
Implied Volatility: Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson method is an efficient way to find the implied volatility of an option contract. It is nothing more than a simple iteration technique for solving one-dimensional nonlinear equations (any introductory textbook in calculus will offer an intuitive explanation). The method seldom uses more than two to three iterations before it converges to the implied volatility . Let
v(i + 1) = v(i) + (c(v(i)) - c(m)) / (dc / dv (i))
until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility , E is the desired degree of accuracy, c(m) is the market price of the option, and dc/ dv (i) is the vega of the option evaluaated at v(i) (the sensitivity of the option value for a small change in volatility ).
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Garman and Kohlhagen (1983) for Currency Options [Loxx]Garman and Kohlhagen (1983) for Currency Options is an adaptation of the Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing Model including Analytical Greeks and implied volatility calculations. The following information is an excerpt from Espen Gaarder Haug's book "Option Pricing Formulas". This version of BSMOPM is to price Currency Options. The options sensitivities (Greeks) are the partial derivatives of the Black-Scholes-Merton ( BSM ) formula. Analytical Greeks for our purposes here are broken down into various categories:
Delta Greeks: Delta, DDeltaDvol, Elasticity
Gamma Greeks: Gamma, GammaP, DGammaDSpot/speed, DGammaDvol/Zomma
Vega Greeks: Vega , DVegaDvol/Vomma, VegaP, Speed
Theta Greeks: Theta
Rate/Carry Greeks: Rho, Rho futures option, Carry Rho, Phi/Rho2
Probability Greeks: StrikeDelta, Risk Neutral Density
(See the code for more details)
Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing for Currency Options
The Garman and Kohlhagen (1983) modified Black-Scholes model can be used to price European currency options; see also Grabbe (1983). The model is mathematically equivalent to the Merton (1973) model presented earlier. The only difference is that the dividend yield is replaced by the risk-free rate of the foreign currency rf:
c = S * e^(-rf * T) * N(d1) - X * e^(-r * T) * N(d2)
p = X * e^(-r * T) * N(-d2) - S * e^(-rf * T) * N(-d1)
where
d1 = (log(S / X) + (r - rf + v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
d2 = d1 - v * T^0.5
For more information on currency options, see DeRosa (2000)
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
rf = Risk-free rate of the foreign currency
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
gImpliedVolatilityNR(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm , float epsilon) = Implied volatility via Newton Raphson
gBlackScholesImpVolBisection(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm ) = implied volatility via bisection
Implied Volatility: The Bisection Method
The Newton-Raphson method requires knowledge of the partial derivative of the option pricing formula with respect to volatility ( vega ) when searching for the implied volatility . For some options (exotic and American options in particular), vega is not known analytically. The bisection method is an even simpler method to estimate implied volatility when vega is unknown. The bisection method requires two initial volatility estimates (seed values):
1. A "low" estimate of the implied volatility , al, corresponding to an option value, CL
2. A "high" volatility estimate, aH, corresponding to an option value, CH
The option market price, Cm , lies between CL and cH . The bisection estimate is given as the linear interpolation between the two estimates:
v(i + 1) = v(L) + (c(m) - c(L)) * (v(H) - v(L)) / (c(H) - c(L))
Replace v(L) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) < c(m), or else replace v(H) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) > c(m) until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E, at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility and E is the desired degree of accuracy.
Implied Volatility: Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson method is an efficient way to find the implied volatility of an option contract. It is nothing more than a simple iteration technique for solving one-dimensional nonlinear equations (any introductory textbook in calculus will offer an intuitive explanation). The method seldom uses more than two to three iterations before it converges to the implied volatility . Let
v(i + 1) = v(i) + (c(v(i)) - c(m)) / (dc / dv (i))
until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility , E is the desired degree of accuracy, c(m) is the market price of the option, and dc/ dv (i) is the vega of the option evaluaated at v(i) (the sensitivity of the option value for a small change in volatility ).
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Related indicators:
BSM OPM 1973 w/ Continuous Dividend Yield
Black-Scholes 1973 OPM on Non-Dividend Paying Stocks
Generalized Black-Scholes-Merton w/ Analytical Greeks
Generalized Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing Formula
Sprenkle 1964 Option Pricing Model w/ Num. Greeks
Modified Bachelier Option Pricing Model w/ Num. Greeks
Bachelier 1900 Option Pricing Model w/ Numerical Greeks
BSM OPM 1973 w/ Continuous Dividend Yield [Loxx]Generalized Black-Scholes-Merton w/ Analytical Greeks is an adaptation of the Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing Model including Analytical Greeks and implied volatility calculations. The following information is an excerpt from Espen Gaarder Haug's book "Option Pricing Formulas". The options sensitivities (Greeks) are the partial derivatives of the Black-Scholes-Merton ( BSM ) formula. Analytical Greeks for our purposes here are broken down into various categories:
Delta Greeks: Delta, DDeltaDvol, Elasticity
Gamma Greeks: Gamma, GammaP, DGammaDSpot/speed, DGammaDvol/Zomma
Vega Greeks: Vega , DVegaDvol/Vomma, VegaP
Theta Greeks: Theta
Rate/Carry Greeks: Rho, Rho futures option, Carry Rho, Phi/Rho2
Probability Greeks: StrikeDelta, Risk Neutral Density
(See the code for more details)
Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing
The Black-Scholes-Merton model can be "generalized" by incorporating a cost-of-carry rate b. This model can be used to price European options on stocks, stocks paying a continuous dividend yield, options on futures, and currency options:
c = S * e^((b - r) * T) * N(d1) - X * e^(-r * T) * N(d2)
p = X * e^(-r * T) * N(-d2) - S * e^((b - r) * T) * N(-d1)
where
d1 = (log(S / X) + (b + v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
d2 = d1 - v * T^0.5
b = r ... gives the Black and Scholes (1973) stock option model.
b = r — q ... gives the Merton (1973) stock option model with continuous dividend yield q. <== this is the one used for this indicator!
b = 0 ... gives the Black (1976) futures option model.
b = 0 and r = 0 ... gives the Asay (1982) margined futures option model.
b = r — rf ... gives the Garman and Kohlhagen (1983) currency option model.
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
d = dividend yield
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
gImpliedVolatilityNR(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm , float epsilon) = Implied volatility via Newton Raphson
gBlackScholesImpVolBisection(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm ) = implied volatility via bisection
Implied Volatility: The Bisection Method
The Newton-Raphson method requires knowledge of the partial derivative of the option pricing formula with respect to volatility ( vega ) when searching for the implied volatility . For some options (exotic and American options in particular), vega is not known analytically. The bisection method is an even simpler method to estimate implied volatility when vega is unknown. The bisection method requires two initial volatility estimates (seed values):
1. A "low" estimate of the implied volatility , al, corresponding to an option value, CL
2. A "high" volatility estimate, aH, corresponding to an option value, CH
The option market price, Cm , lies between CL and cH . The bisection estimate is given as the linear interpolation between the two estimates:
v(i + 1) = v(L) + (c(m) - c(L)) * (v(H) - v(L)) / (c(H) - c(L))
Replace v(L) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) < c(m), or else replace v(H) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) > c(m) until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E, at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility and E is the desired degree of accuracy.
Implied Volatility: Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson method is an efficient way to find the implied volatility of an option contract. It is nothing more than a simple iteration technique for solving one-dimensional nonlinear equations (any introductory textbook in calculus will offer an intuitive explanation). The method seldom uses more than two to three iterations before it converges to the implied volatility . Let
v(i + 1) = v(i) + (c(v(i)) - c(m)) / (dc / dv (i))
until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility , E is the desired degree of accuracy, c(m) is the market price of the option, and dc/ dv (i) is the vega of the option evaluaated at v(i) (the sensitivity of the option value for a small change in volatility ).
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Black-Scholes 1973 OPM on Non-Dividend Paying Stocks [Loxx]Black-Scholes 1973 OPM on Non-Dividend Paying Stocks is an adaptation of the Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing Model including Analytical Greeks and implied volatility calculations. Making b equal to r yields the BSM model where dividends are not considered. The following information is an excerpt from Espen Gaarder Haug's book "Option Pricing Formulas". The options sensitivities (Greeks) are the partial derivatives of the Black-Scholes-Merton ( BSM ) formula. For our purposes here are, Analytical Greeks are broken down into various categories:
Delta Greeks: Delta, DDeltaDvol, Elasticity
Gamma Greeks: Gamma, GammaP, DGammaDSpot/speed, DGammaDvol/Zomma
Vega Greeks: Vega , DVegaDvol/Vomma, VegaP
Theta Greeks: Theta
Rate/Carry Greeks: Rho
Probability Greeks: StrikeDelta, Risk Neutral Density
(See the code for more details)
Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing
The BSM formula and its binomial counterpart may easily be the most used "probability model/tool" in everyday use — even if we con- sider all other scientific disciplines. Literally tens of thousands of people, including traders, market makers, and salespeople, use option formulas several times a day. Hardly any other area has seen such dramatic growth as the options and derivatives businesses. In this chapter we look at the various versions of the basic option formula. In 1997 Myron Scholes and Robert Merton were awarded the Nobel Prize (The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel). Unfortunately, Fischer Black died of cancer in 1995 before he also would have received the prize.
It is worth mentioning that it was not the option formula itself that Myron Scholes and Robert Merton were awarded the Nobel Prize for, the formula was actually already invented, but rather for the way they derived it — the replicating portfolio argument, continuous- time dynamic delta hedging, as well as making the formula consistent with the capital asset pricing model (CAPM). The continuous dynamic replication argument is unfortunately far from robust. The popularity among traders for using option formulas heavily relies on hedging options with options and on the top of this dynamic delta hedging, see Higgins (1902), Nelson (1904), Mello and Neuhaus (1998), Derman and Taleb (2005), as well as Haug (2006) for more details on this topic. In any case, this book is about option formulas and not so much about how to derive them.
Provided here are the various versions of the Black-Scholes-Merton formula presented in the literature. All formulas in this section are originally derived based on the underlying asset S follows a geometric Brownian motion
dS = mu * S * dt + v * S * dz
where t is the expected instantaneous rate of return on the underlying asset, a is the instantaneous volatility of the rate of return, and dz is a Wiener process.
The formula derived by Black and Scholes (1973) can be used to value a European option on a stock that does not pay dividends before the option's expiration date. Letting c and p denote the price of European call and put options, respectively, the formula states that
c = S * N(d1) - X * e^(-r * T) * N(d2)
p = X * e^(-r * T) * N(d2) - S * N(d1)
where
d1 = (log(S / X) + (r + v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
d2 = (log(S / X) + (r - v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5) = d1 - v * T^0.5
**This version of the Black-Scholes formula can also be used to price American call options on a non-dividend-paying stock, since it will never be optimal to exercise the option before expiration.**
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
b = Cost of carry
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
gImpliedVolatilityNR(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm , float epsilon) = Implied volatility via Newton Raphson
gBlackScholesImpVolBisection(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm ) = implied volatility via bisection
Implied Volatility: The Bisection Method
The Newton-Raphson method requires knowledge of the partial derivative of the option pricing formula with respect to volatility ( vega ) when searching for the implied volatility . For some options (exotic and American options in particular), vega is not known analytically. The bisection method is an even simpler method to estimate implied volatility when vega is unknown. The bisection method requires two initial volatility estimates (seed values):
1. A "low" estimate of the implied volatility , al, corresponding to an option value, CL
2. A "high" volatility estimate, aH, corresponding to an option value, CH
The option market price, Cm , lies between CL and cH . The bisection estimate is given as the linear interpolation between the two estimates:
v(i + 1) = v(L) + (c(m) - c(L)) * (v(H) - v(L)) / (c(H) - c(L))
Replace v(L) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) < c(m), or else replace v(H) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) > c(m) until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E, at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility and E is the desired degree of accuracy.
Implied Volatility: Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson method is an efficient way to find the implied volatility of an option contract. It is nothing more than a simple iteration technique for solving one-dimensional nonlinear equations (any introductory textbook in calculus will offer an intuitive explanation). The method seldom uses more than two to three iterations before it converges to the implied volatility . Let
v(i + 1) = v(i) + (c(v(i)) - c(m)) / (dc / dv (i))
until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility , E is the desired degree of accuracy, c(m) is the market price of the option, and dc/ dv (i) is the vega of the option evaluaated at v(i) (the sensitivity of the option value for a small change in volatility ).
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Generalized Black-Scholes-Merton w/ Analytical Greeks [Loxx]Generalized Black-Scholes-Merton w/ Analytical Greeks is an adaptation of the Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing Model including Analytical Greeks and implied volatility calculations. The following information is an excerpt from Espen Gaarder Haug's book "Option Pricing Formulas". The options sensitivities (Greeks) are the partial derivatives of the Black-Scholes-Merton (BSM) formula. Analytical Greeks for our purposes here are broken down into various categories:
Delta Greeks: Delta, DDeltaDvol, Elasticity
Gamma Greeks: Gamma, GammaP, DGammaDSpot/speed, DGammaDvol/Zomma
Vega Greeks: Vega, DVegaDvol/Vomma, VegaP
Theta Greeks: Theta
Rate/Carry Greeks: Rho, Rho futures option, Carry Rho, Phi/Rho2
Probability Greeks: StrikeDelta, Risk Neutral Density
(See the code for more details)
Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing
The BSM formula and its binomial counterpart may easily be the most used "probability model/tool" in everyday use — even if we con- sider all other scientific disciplines. Literally tens of thousands of people, including traders, market makers, and salespeople, use option formulas several times a day. Hardly any other area has seen such dramatic growth as the options and derivatives businesses. In this chapter we look at the various versions of the basic option formula. In 1997 Myron Scholes and Robert Merton were awarded the Nobel Prize (The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel). Unfortunately, Fischer Black died of cancer in 1995 before he also would have received the prize.
It is worth mentioning that it was not the option formula itself that Myron Scholes and Robert Merton were awarded the Nobel Prize for, the formula was actually already invented, but rather for the way they derived it — the replicating portfolio argument, continuous- time dynamic delta hedging, as well as making the formula consistent with the capital asset pricing model (CAPM). The continuous dynamic replication argument is unfortunately far from robust. The popularity among traders for using option formulas heavily relies on hedging options with options and on the top of this dynamic delta hedging, see Higgins (1902), Nelson (1904), Mello and Neuhaus (1998), Derman and Taleb (2005), as well as Haug (2006) for more details on this topic. In any case, this book is about option formulas and not so much about how to derive them.
Provided here are the various versions of the Black-Scholes-Merton formula presented in the literature. All formulas in this section are originally derived based on the underlying asset S follows a geometric Brownian motion
dS = mu * S * dt + v * S * dz
where t is the expected instantaneous rate of return on the underlying asset, a is the instantaneous volatility of the rate of return, and dz is a Wiener process.
The formula derived by Black and Scholes (1973) can be used to value a European option on a stock that does not pay dividends before the option's expiration date. Letting c and p denote the price of European call and put options, respectively, the formula states that
c = S * N(d1) - X * e^(-r * T) * N(d2)
p = X * e^(-r * T) * N(d2) - S * N(d1)
where
d1 = (log(S / X) + (r + v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
d2 = (log(S / X) + (r - v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5) = d1 - v * T^0.5
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
b = Cost of carry
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
gImpliedVolatilityNR(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm , float epsilon) = Implied volatility via Newton Raphson
gBlackScholesImpVolBisection(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm ) = implied volatility via bisection
Implied Volatility: The Bisection Method
The Newton-Raphson method requires knowledge of the partial derivative of the option pricing formula with respect to volatility ( vega ) when searching for the implied volatility . For some options (exotic and American options in particular), vega is not known analytically. The bisection method is an even simpler method to estimate implied volatility when vega is unknown. The bisection method requires two initial volatility estimates (seed values):
1. A "low" estimate of the implied volatility , al, corresponding to an option value, CL
2. A "high" volatility estimate, aH, corresponding to an option value, CH
The option market price, Cm , lies between CL and cH . The bisection estimate is given as the linear interpolation between the two estimates:
v(i + 1) = v(L) + (c(m) - c(L)) * (v(H) - v(L)) / (c(H) - c(L))
Replace v(L) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) < c(m), or else replace v(H) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) > c(m) until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E, at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility and E is the desired degree of accuracy.
Implied Volatility: Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson method is an efficient way to find the implied volatility of an option contract. It is nothing more than a simple iteration technique for solving one-dimensional nonlinear equations (any introductory textbook in calculus will offer an intuitive explanation). The method seldom uses more than two to three iterations before it converges to the implied volatility . Let
v(i + 1) = v(i) + (c(v(i)) - c(m)) / (dc / dv (i))
until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility , E is the desired degree of accuracy, c(m) is the market price of the option, and dc/ dv (i) is the vega of the option evaluaated at v(i) (the sensitivity of the option value for a small change in volatility ).
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Generalized Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing Formula [Loxx]Generalized Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing Formula is an adaptation of the Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing Model including Numerical Greeks aka "Option Sensitivities" and implied volatility calculations. The following information is an excerpt from Espen Gaarder Haug's book "Option Pricing Formulas".
Black-Scholes-Merton Option Pricing
The BSM formula and its binomial counterpart may easily be the most used "probability model/tool" in everyday use — even if we con- sider all other scientific disciplines. Literally tens of thousands of people, including traders, market makers, and salespeople, use option formulas several times a day. Hardly any other area has seen such dramatic growth as the options and derivatives businesses. In this chapter we look at the various versions of the basic option formula. In 1997 Myron Scholes and Robert Merton were awarded the Nobel Prize (The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel). Unfortunately, Fischer Black died of cancer in 1995 before he also would have received the prize.
It is worth mentioning that it was not the option formula itself that Myron Scholes and Robert Merton were awarded the Nobel Prize for, the formula was actually already invented, but rather for the way they derived it — the replicating portfolio argument, continuous- time dynamic delta hedging, as well as making the formula consistent with the capital asset pricing model (CAPM). The continuous dynamic replication argument is unfortunately far from robust. The popularity among traders for using option formulas heavily relies on hedging options with options and on the top of this dynamic delta hedging, see Higgins (1902), Nelson (1904), Mello and Neuhaus (1998), Derman and Taleb (2005), as well as Haug (2006) for more details on this topic. In any case, this book is about option formulas and not so much about how to derive them.
Provided here are the various versions of the Black-Scholes-Merton formula presented in the literature. All formulas in this section are originally derived based on the underlying asset S follows a geometric Brownian motion
dS = mu * S * dt + v * S * dz
where t is the expected instantaneous rate of return on the underlying asset, a is the instantaneous volatility of the rate of return, and dz is a Wiener process.
The formula derived by Black and Scholes (1973) can be used to value a European option on a stock that does not pay dividends before the option's expiration date. Letting c and p denote the price of European call and put options, respectively, the formula states that
c = S * N(d1) - X * e^(-r * T) * N(d2)
p = X * e^(-r * T) * N(d2) - S * N(d1)
where
d1 = (log(S / X) + (r + v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
d2 = (log(S / X) + (r - v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5) = d1 - v * T^0.5
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
b = Cost of carry
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp ) = Rate compounder
gImpliedVolatilityNR(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm, float epsilon) = Implied volatility via Newton Raphson
gBlackScholesImpVolBisection(string CallPutFlag, float S, float x, float T, float r, float b, float cm) = implied volatility via bisection
Implied Volatility: The Bisection Method
The Newton-Raphson method requires knowledge of the partial derivative of the option pricing formula with respect to volatility (vega) when searching for the implied volatility. For some options (exotic and American options in particular), vega is not known analytically. The bisection method is an even simpler method to estimate implied volatility when vega is unknown. The bisection method requires two initial volatility estimates (seed values):
1. A "low" estimate of the implied volatility, al, corresponding to an option value, CL
2. A "high" volatility estimate, aH, corresponding to an option value, CH
The option market price, Cm, lies between CL and cH. The bisection estimate is given as the linear interpolation between the two estimates:
v(i + 1) = v(L) + (c(m) - c(L)) * (v(H) - v(L)) / (c(H) - c(L))
Replace v(L) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) < c(m), or else replace v(H) with v(i + 1) if c(v(i + 1)) > c(m) until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E, at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility and E is the desired degree of accuracy.
Implied Volatility: Newton-Raphson Method
The Newton-Raphson method is an efficient way to find the implied volatility of an option contract. It is nothing more than a simple iteration technique for solving one-dimensional nonlinear equations (any introductory textbook in calculus will offer an intuitive explanation). The method seldom uses more than two to three iterations before it converges to the implied volatility. Let
v(i + 1) = v(i) + (c(v(i)) - c(m)) / (dc / dv(i))
until |c(m) - c(v(i + 1))| <= E at which point v(i + 1) is the implied volatility, E is the desired degree of accuracy, c(m) is the market price of the option, and dc/dv(i) is the vega of the option evaluaated at v(i) (the sensitivity of the option value for a small change in volatility).
Numerical Greeks or Greeks by Finite Difference
Analytical Greeks are the standard approach to estimating Delta, Gamma etc... That is what we typically use when we can derive from closed form solutions. Normally, these are well-defined and available in text books. Previously, we relied on closed form solutions for the call or put formulae differentiated with respect to the Black Scholes parameters. When Greeks formulae are difficult to develop or tease out, we can alternatively employ numerical Greeks - sometimes referred to finite difference approximations. A key advantage of numerical Greeks relates to their estimation independent of deriving mathematical Greeks. This could be important when we examine American options where there may not technically exist an exact closed form solution that is straightforward to work with. (via VinegarHill FinanceLabs)
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Sprenkle 1964 Option Pricing Model w/ Num. Greeks [Loxx]Sprenkle 1964 Option Pricing Model w/ Num. Greeks is an adaptation of the Sprenkle 1964 Option Pricing Model in Pine Script. The following information is an except from Espen Gaarder Haug's book "Option Pricing Formulas".
The Sprenkle Model
Sprenkle (1964) assumed the stock price was log-normally distributed and thus that the asset price followed a geometric Brownian motion, just as in the Black and Scholes (1973) analysis. In this way he ruled out the possibility of negative stock prices, consistent with limited liability. Sprenkle moreover allowed for a drift in the asset price, thus allowing positive interest rates and risk aversion (Smith, 1976). Sprenkle assumed today's value was equal to the expected value at maturity.
c = S * e^(rho*T) * N(d1) - (1 - k) * X * N(d2)
d1 = (log(S/X) + (rho + v^2 / 2) * T) / (v * T^0.5)
d2 = d1 - (v * T^0.5)
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
k = Market risk aversion adjustment
rho = Average growth rate share
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
convertingToCCRate(r, cmp) = Rate compounder
Numerical Greeks or Greeks by Finite Difference
Analytical Greeks are the standard approach to estimating Delta, Gamma etc... That is what we typically use when we can derive from closed form solutions. Normally, these are well-defined and available in text books. Previously, we relied on closed form solutions for the call or put formulae differentiated with respect to the Black Scholes parameters. When Greeks formulae are difficult to develop or tease out, we can alternatively employ numerical Greeks - sometimes referred to finite difference approximations. A key advantage of numerical Greeks relates to their estimation independent of deriving mathematical Greeks. This could be important when we examine American options where there may not technically exist an exact closed form solution that is straightforward to work with. (via VinegarHill FinanceLabs)
Things to know
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
You can adjust the text size to fit the screen
Modified Bachelier Option Pricing Model w/ Num. Greeks [Loxx]Modified Bachelier Option Pricing Model w/ Num. Greeks is an adaptation of the Modified Bachelier Option Pricing Model in Pine Script. The following information is an except from Espen Gaarder Haug's book "Option Pricing Formulas".
Before Black Scholes Merton
The curious reader may be asking how people priced options before the BSM breakthrough was published in 1973. This section offers a quick overview of some of the most important precursors to the BSM model. As early as 1900, Louis Bachelier published his now famous work on option pricing. In contrast to Black, Scholes, and Merton, Bachelier assumed a normal distribution for the asset price—in other words, an arithmetic Brownian motion process:
dS = sigma * dz
Where S is the asset price and dz is a Wiener process. This implies a positive probability for observing a negative asset price—a feature that is not popular for stocks and any other asset with limited liability features.
The current call price is the expected price at expiration. This argument yields:
c = (S - X)*N(d1) + v * T^0.5 * n(d1)
and for a put option we get
p = (S - X)*N(-d1) + v * T^0.5 * n(d1)
where
d1 = (S - X) / (v * T^0.5)
Modified Bachelier Model
By using the arguments of BSM but now with arithmetic Brownian motion (normal distributed stock price), we can easily correct the Bachelier model to take into account the time value of money in a risk-neutral world. This yields:
c = S * N(d1) - Xe^-rT * N(d1) + v * T^0.5 * n(d1)
p = Xe^-rT * N(-d1) - S * N(-d1) + v * T^0.5 * n(d1)
d1 = (S - X) / (v * T^0.5)
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
r = Risk-free rate
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
cnd (x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
Numerical Greeks or Greeks by Finite Difference
Analytical Greeks are the standard approach to estimating Delta, Gamma etc... That is what we typically use when we can derive from closed form solutions. Normally, these are well-defined and available in text books. Previously, we relied on closed form solutions for the call or put formulae differentiated with respect to the Black Scholes parameters. When Greeks formulae are difficult to develop or tease out, we can alternatively employ numerical Greeks - sometimes referred to finite difference approximations. A key advantage of numerical Greeks relates to their estimation independent of deriving mathematical Greeks. This could be important when we examine American options where there may not technically exist an exact closed form solution that is straightforward to work with. (via VinegarHill FinanceLabs)
Things to know
Volatility for this model is price, so dollars or whatever currency you're using. Historical volatility is also reported in currency.
There is no dividend adjustment input
Only works on the daily timeframe and for the current source price.
Bachelier 1900 Option Pricing Model w/ Numerical Greeks [Loxx]Bachelier 1900 Option Pricing Model w/ Numerical Greeks is an adaptation of the Bachelier 1900 Option Pricing Model in Pine Script. The following information is an except from Espen Gaarder Haug's book "Option Pricing Formulas"
Before Black Scholes Merton
The curious reader may be asking how people priced options before the BSM breakthrough was published in 1973. This section offers a quick overview of some of the most important precursors to the BSM model. As early as 1900, Louis Bachelier published his now famous work on option pricing. In contrast to Black, Scholes, and Merton, Bachelier assumed a normal distribution for the asset price—in other words, an arithmetic Brownian motion process:
dS = sigma * dz
Where S is the asset price and dz is a Wiener process. This implies a positive probability for observing a negative asset price—a feature that is not popular for stocks and any other asset with limited liability features.
The current call price is the expected price at expiration. This argument yields:
c = (S - X)*N(d1) + v * T^0.5 * n(d1)
and for a put option we get
p = (S - X)*N(-d1) + v * T^0.5 * n(d1)
where
d1 = (S - X) / (v * T^0.5)
Inputs
S = Stock price.
X = Strike price of option.
T = Time to expiration in years.
v = Volatility of the underlying asset price
cnd(x) = The cumulative normal distribution function
nd(x) = The standard normal density function
Numerical Greeks or Greeks by Finite Difference
Analytical Greeks are the standard approach to estimating Delta, Gamma etc... That is what we typically use when we can derive from closed form solutions. Normally, these are well-defined and available in text books. Previously, we relied on closed form solutions for the call or put formulae differentiated with respect to the Black Scholes parameters. When Greeks formulae are difficult to develop or tease out, we can alternatively employ numerical Greeks - sometimes referred to finite difference approximations. A key advantage of numerical Greeks relates to their estimation independent of deriving mathematical Greeks. This could be important when we examine American options where there may not technically exist an exact closed form solution that is straightforward to work with. ( via VinegarHill FinanceLabs )
Things to know
Volatility for this model is price, so dollars or whatever currency you're using. Historical volatility is also reported in currency.
There is no risk-free rate input
There is no dividend adjustment input
Market Sessions [Kaspricci]A simple indicator to show you the opening hours of the main markets in London, New York, Tokio and Sydney. It is not shown in your main chart window and as such does not make the chart more difficult to read.
You can turn each market on and off individually and also change the start and end time, if you wish so. All based on GMT timezone, but will be translated into your local timezone.
Happy to receive your feedback.
Effortless ScalpingEffortless Scalping is an indicator that primarily is used for stock options trading.
Effortless Scalping is based off of momentum. Our script takes into account the price action, volume, and historical data points of a stock to give potential "buy" and "sell" areas.
Effortless Scalping is a protected script because its Buy and Sell signals are based off of custom coded confirmations. This is what makes our script unique. We also have custom coded CHOP Filters in the indicator.
Effortless Scalping has a custom EMA line that flows with the trend of the market. It also changes colors to indicate a bullish or bearish trend . It also will change into a yellow color if the CHOP of the market exceeds your allowance. This EMA line is the only "classic" element of our custom coded script.
You can easily use Effortless Scalping by applying it straight to your chart. You can customize several visual effects in the settings menu.
Effortless Scalping also has two types of signals--RISKY signals and normal signals. Risky signals have a higher risk, but also a higher reward.
Effortless Scalping also features take profit levels based off of ATR levels.
Effortless Scalping also has custom support and resistance lines to better help you analyze the movement of a stock. These levels are based off of pivot levels.
Effortless Scalping can not predict the future move of a stock. Our script uses historical data points to alert POTENTIAL entries. These historical data points by NO MEANS predict the future movement of the market.
Effortless Scalping was created to help me understand the movement of a stock and why it may be moving in that direction. I personally found success using this script. I am sharing it because I am hoping that others find success in this script as well. I also like to trade quite frequently, and several times a day, so I made an indicator that is both accurate and alerts frequently.
This indicator does NOT provide financial advice. It is intended for general use only.
Black Scholes Option Pricing Model w/ Greeks [Loxx]The Black Scholes Merton model
If you are new to options I strongly advise you to profit from Robert Shiller's lecture on same . It combines practical market insights with a strong authoritative grasp of key models in option theory. He explains many of the areas covered below and in the following pages with a lot intuition and relatable anecdotage. We start here with Black Scholes Merton which is probably the most popular option pricing framework, due largely to its simplicity and ease in terms of implementation. The closed-form solution is efficient in terms of speed and always compares favorably relative to any numerical technique. The Black–Scholes–Merton model is a mathematical go-to model for estimating the value of European calls and puts. In the early 1970’s, Myron Scholes, and Fisher Black made an important breakthrough in the pricing of complex financial instruments. Robert Merton simultaneously was working on the same problem and applied the term Black-Scholes model to describe new generation of pricing. The Black Scholes (1973) contribution developed insights originally proposed by Bachelier 70 years before. In 1997, Myron Scholes and Robert Merton received the Nobel Prize for Economics. Tragically, Fisher Black died in 1995. The Black–Scholes formula presents a theoretical estimate (or model estimate) of the price of European-style options independently of the risk of the underlying security. Future payoffs from options can be discounted using the risk-neutral rate. Earlier academic work on options (e.g., Malkiel and Quandt 1968, 1969) had contemplated using either empirical, econometric analyses or elaborate theoretical models that possessed parameters whose values could not be calibrated directly. In contrast, Black, Scholes, and Merton’s parameters were at their core simple and did not involve references to utility or to the shifting risk appetite of investors. Below, we present a standard type formula, where: c = Call option value, p = Put option value, S=Current stock (or other underlying) price, K or X=Strike price, r=Risk-free interest rate, q = dividend yield, T=Time to maturity and N denotes taking the normal cumulative probability. b = (r - q) = cost of carry. (via VinegarHill-Financelab )
Things to know
This can only be used on the daily timeframe
You must select the option type and the greeks you wish to show
This indicator is a work in process, functions may be updated in the future. I will also be adding additional greeks as I code them or they become available in finance literature. This indictor contains 18 greeks. Many more will be added later.
Inputs
Spot price: select from 33 different types of price inputs
Calculation Steps: how many iterations to be used in the BS model. In practice, this number would be anywhere from 5000 to 15000, for our purposes here, this is limited to 300
Strike Price: the strike price of the option you're wishing to model
% Implied Volatility: here you can manually enter implied volatility
Historical Volatility Period: the input period for historical volatility ; historical volatility isn't used in the BS process, this is to serve as a sort of benchmark for the implied volatility ,
Historical Volatility Type: choose from various types of implied volatility , search my indicators for details on each of these
Option Base Currency: this is to calculate the risk-free rate, this is used if you wish to automatically calculate the risk-free rate instead of using the manual input. this uses the 10 year bold yield of the corresponding country
% Manual Risk-free Rate: here you can manually enter the risk-free rate
Use manual input for Risk-free Rate? : choose manual or automatic for risk-free rate
% Manual Yearly Dividend Yield: here you can manually enter the yearly dividend yield
Adjust for Dividends?: choose if you even want to use use dividends
Automatically Calculate Yearly Dividend Yield? choose if you want to use automatic vs manual dividend yield calculation
Time Now Type: choose how you want to calculate time right now, see the tool tip
Days in Year: choose how many days in the year, 365 for all days, 252 for trading days, etc
Hours Per Day: how many hours per day? 24, 8 working hours, or 6.5 trading hours
Expiry date settings: here you can specify the exact time the option expires
The Black Scholes Greeks
The Option Greek formulae express the change in the option price with respect to a parameter change taking as fixed all the other inputs. ( Haug explores multiple parameter changes at once .) One significant use of Greek measures is to calibrate risk exposure. A market-making financial institution with a portfolio of options, for instance, would want a snap shot of its exposure to asset price, interest rates, dividend fluctuations. It would try to establish impacts of volatility and time decay. In the formulae below, the Greeks merely evaluate change to only one input at a time. In reality, we might expect a conflagration of changes in interest rates and stock prices etc. (via VigengarHill-Financelab )
First-order Greeks
Delta: Delta measures the rate of change of the theoretical option value with respect to changes in the underlying asset's price. Delta is the first derivative of the value
Vega: Vegameasures sensitivity to volatility. Vega is the derivative of the option value with respect to the volatility of the underlying asset.
Theta: Theta measures the sensitivity of the value of the derivative to the passage of time (see Option time value): the "time decay."
Rho: Rho measures sensitivity to the interest rate: it is the derivative of the option value with respect to the risk free interest rate (for the relevant outstanding term).
Lambda: Lambda, Omega, or elasticity is the percentage change in option value per percentage change in the underlying price, a measure of leverage, sometimes called gearing.
Epsilon: Epsilon, also known as psi, is the percentage change in option value per percentage change in the underlying dividend yield, a measure of the dividend risk. The dividend yield impact is in practice determined using a 10% increase in those yields. Obviously, this sensitivity can only be applied to derivative instruments of equity products.
Second-order Greeks
Gamma: Measures the rate of change in the delta with respect to changes in the underlying price. Gamma is the second derivative of the value function with respect to the underlying price.
Vanna: Vanna, also referred to as DvegaDspot and DdeltaDvol, is a second order derivative of the option value, once to the underlying spot price and once to volatility. It is mathematically equivalent to DdeltaDvol, the sensitivity of the option delta with respect to change in volatility; or alternatively, the partial of vega with respect to the underlying instrument's price. Vanna can be a useful sensitivity to monitor when maintaining a delta- or vega-hedged portfolio as vanna will help the trader to anticipate changes to the effectiveness of a delta-hedge as volatility changes or the effectiveness of a vega-hedge against change in the underlying spot price.
Charm: Charm or delta decay measures the instantaneous rate of change of delta over the passage of time.
Vomma: Vomma, volga, vega convexity, or DvegaDvol measures second order sensitivity to volatility. Vomma is the second derivative of the option value with respect to the volatility, or, stated another way, vomma measures the rate of change to vega as volatility changes.
Veta: Veta or DvegaDtime measures the rate of change in the vega with respect to the passage of time. Veta is the second derivative of the value function; once to volatility and once to time.
Vera: Vera (sometimes rhova) measures the rate of change in rho with respect to volatility. Vera is the second derivative of the value function; once to volatility and once to interest rate.
Third-order Greeks
Speed: Speed measures the rate of change in Gamma with respect to changes in the underlying price.
Zomma: Zomma measures the rate of change of gamma with respect to changes in volatility.
Color: Color, gamma decay or DgammaDtime measures the rate of change of gamma over the passage of time.
Ultima: Ultima measures the sensitivity of the option vomma with respect to change in volatility.
Dual Delta: Dual Delta determines how the option price changes in relation to the change in the option strike price; it is the first derivative of the option price relative to the option strike price
Dual Gamma: Dual Gamma determines by how much the coefficient will changedual delta when the option strike price changes; it is the second derivative of the option price relative to the option strike price.
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Boyle Trinomial Options Pricing Model
